Pragmatics (What is said and what is meant)

 

 

Pragmatics is a subfield of linguistics and semiotics that studies how context influences the interpretation of meaning in communication. Unlike syntax (which studies the structure of sentences) and semantics (which studies the meaning of words and sentences in a more abstract sense), pragmatics focuses on how speakers and listeners use context to understand and produce language.

 

>> Key Concepts in Pragmatics

1. Context: Context is crucial in pragmatics. It includes the physical setting, the social situation, the cultural background, and the prior discourse. Context helps determine what is meant beyond the literal meaning of the words.
2. Speech Acts: Speech acts are actions performed via utterances. John Searle and J.L. Austin developed speech act theory, which categorizes speech acts into:
   • Locutionary Acts: The actual act of saying something.
   • Illocutionary Acts: The intention behind the utterance (e.g., promising, ordering, greeting).
   • Perlocutionary Acts: The effect the utterance has on the listener (e.g., persuading, scaring).
3. Deixis: Deictic expressions are words or phrases (like "this," "that," "here," "there," "now," "then") whose meaning depends on the context. They help anchor the conversation in the context.
4. Implicature: Coined by H.P. Grice, implicature refers to what is suggested in an utterance, even though neither expressed nor strictly implied. It is often derived from conversational maxims (Quality, Quantity, Relevance, Manner) that people usually follow to communicate effectively.
5. Politeness Theory: Developed by Penelope Brown and Stephen Levinson, this theory examines how people manage face (public self-image) in communication. It includes strategies to be polite and mitigate face-threatening acts.
6. Presupposition: These are assumptions the speaker makes about what the listener already knows. For example, the statement "John's brother is tall" presupposes that John has a brother.
7. Pragmatic Markers: These are words or phrases used to manage the flow of discourse, signal the speaker's intentions, or organize thoughts. Examples include "well," "so," "you know," and "I mean."

 

>> Examples to Illustrate Pragmatic Concepts

Context and Ambiguity:

• Sentence: "Can you pass the salt?"
• Literal Meaning: Asking if someone has the ability to pass the salt.
• Pragmatic Meaning: A polite request for someone to pass the salt.

Speech Acts:

Sentence: "I apologize for being late."

• Locutionary Act: The utterance of the words.
• Illocutionary Act: The act of apologizing.
• Perlocutionary Act: The listener feels acknowledged and might forgive the speaker.

Deixis:

Sentence: "I’ll meet you there tomorrow."

• Interpretation: The exact meaning of "I," "you," "there," and "tomorrow" depends on who is speaking, who is listening, the location of the meeting, and the current day.

Implicature:

• Conversation:

A: "Do you want to go out for dinner?"

B: "I have a lot of work to do."

• Implicature: B is implying they cannot go out for dinner without directly saying "no."

Politeness Theory:

• Sentence: "Could you possibly close the window?"
• Politeness Strategy: Using "could you possibly" to make the request sound more polite and less direct.

Presupposition:

• Sentence: "Jane stopped smoking."
• Presupposition: Jane used to smoke.

 

>> Importance of Pragmatics

Pragmatics is essential because it helps explain how people understand meaning in real-life communication. It accounts for:

• Indirect Communication: Understanding meanings that are not explicitly stated.
• Contextual Influences: Interpreting messages based on situational factors.
• Social Interactions: Navigating politeness, formality, and social norms in conversation.
• Language Use: Recognizing how language varies across different contexts and purposes.

Applications of Pragmatics

• Language Teaching: Helps in teaching learners how to use language appropriately in different contexts.
• Artificial Intelligence: Enhances natural language processing systems to understand and generate human-like language.
• Communication Disorders: Aids in diagnosing and treating pragmatic language impairments.
• Cross-Cultural Communication: Facilitates better understanding of how different cultures use and interpret language.

Pragmatics bridges the gap between what is said and what is meant, considering the speaker's intentions, the listener's interpretations, and the contextual nuances that shape communication.

 

 

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[1] H.P. Grice (1975), "Logic and Conversation".

=>  Grice is best known for his theory of implicature and the conversational maxims (Quality, Quantity, Relevance, Manner) that guide effective communication.

 

[2] John Searle (1979), "Speech Acts: An Essay in the Philosophy of Language" (1969), "Expression and Meaning: Studies in the Theory of Speech Acts" .

=> Searle further developed speech act theory, initially proposed by J.L. Austin, by categorizing and elaborating on different types of speech acts.

 

[3] J.L. Austin (1962), "How to Do Things with Words".

=> Austin introduced the concept of speech acts, emphasizing the performative nature of language in his lectures.

 

[4] Dan Sperber and Deirdre Wilson(1986), "Relevance: Communication and Cognition".

=> They developed the relevance theory, which builds on Grice’s work and focuses on how humans communicate by expressing and recognizing intentions.

 

[5] Stephen Levinson(2000), "Pragmatics" (1983), "Presumptive Meanings: The Theory of Generalized Conversational Implicature" .

=>  Levinson has made extensive contributions to the understanding of pragmatics, particularly in the areas of deixis, implicature, and conversation analysis.

 

[6] Penelope Brown and Stephen Levinson(1987), "Politeness: Some Universals in Language Usage".

=> They co-developed the politeness theory, which explores how individuals manage face and politeness in interaction.

 

[7] Deborah Tannen, 

(1990), "You Just Don’t Understand: Women and Men in Conversation",

(1989), "Talking Voices: Repetition, Dialogue, and Imagery in Conversational Discourse".

=> Tannen is known for her work on discourse analysis and conversational styles, particularly how gender and cultural differences affect communication.

 

[8] Paul Grice(1989),  "Studies in the Way of Words" .

=> Grice’s cooperative principle and maxims of conversation have been fundamental in understanding how people convey meaning beyond the literal interpretation of words.

 

[9] Erving Goffman(1967), "Interaction Ritual: Essays on Face-to-Face Behavior".

=> Goffman’s work on face-to-face interaction and the concept of face, although more sociological, has greatly influenced pragmatic theories of politeness and interaction.

 

[10] Robin Lakoff

(1975), "Language and Woman’s Place",

(1990), "Talking Power: The Politics of Language in Our Lives" .

=> Lakoff’s work on politeness and language and gender has been influential in understanding the pragmatic aspects of language use.